1. Field of the Invention
The present invention generally relates to thin film solar cell fabrication, more particularly, to techniques for manufacturing solar cells based on Group IBIIIAVIA thin film semiconductors.
2. Description of the Related Art
Solar cells are photovoltaic devices that convert sunlight directly into electrical power. The most common solar cell material is silicon, which is in the form of single or polycrystalline wafers. However, the cost of electricity generated using silicon-based solar cells is higher than the cost of electricity generated by the more traditional methods. Therefore, since early 1970's there has been an effort to reduce cost of solar cells for terrestrial use. One way of reducing the cost of solar cells is to develop low-cost thin film growth techniques that can deposit solar-cell-quality absorber materials on large area substrates and to fabricate these devices using high-throughput, low-cost methods.
Group IBIIIAVIA compound semiconductors comprising some of the Group IB (Cu, Ag, Au), Group IIIA (B, Al, Ga, In, Tl) and Group VIA (O, S, Se, Te, Po) materials or elements of the periodic table are excellent absorber materials for thin film solar cell structures. Especially, compounds of Cu, In, Ga, Se and S which are generally referred to as CIGS(S), or Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 or CuIn1−xGax (SySe1−y)k, where 0≦x≦1, 0≦y≦1 and k is approximately 2, have already been employed in solar cell structures that yielded conversion efficiencies approaching 20%. It should be noted that the notation “Cu(X,Y)” in the chemical formula means all chemical compositions of X and Y from (X=0% and Y=100%) to (X=100% and Y=0%). For example, Cu(In,Ga) means all compositions from CuIn to CuGa. Similarly, Cu(In,Ga)(S,Se)2 means the whole family of compounds with Ga/(Ga+In) molar ratio varying from 0 to 1, and Se/(Se+S) molar ratio varying from 0 to 1.
The structure of a conventional Group IBIIIAVIA compound photovoltaic cell such as a Cu(In,Ga,Al)(S,Se,Te)2 thin film solar cell is shown in FIG. 1. A photovoltaic cell 10 is fabricated on a substrate 11, such as a sheet of glass, a sheet of metal, an insulating foil or web, or a conductive foil or web. An absorber film 12, which comprises a material in the family of Cu(In,Ga,Al)(S,Se,Te)2, is grown over a contact layer 13, which is previously deposited on the substrate 11 and which acts as the electrical contact to the absorber film 12 of the device. The substrate 11 and the contact layer 13 form a base 20 on which the absorber film 12 is formed. Various contact layers comprising Mo, Ta, W, Ti, and their nitrides have been used in the solar cell structure of FIG. 1. If the substrate itself is a properly selected conductive material, it is possible not to use the contact layer 13, since the substrate 11 may then be used as the ohmic contact to the device. After the absorber film 12 is grown, a transparent layer 14 or window layer such as a CdS, ZnO, CdS/ZnO or CdS/ZnO/ITO stack is formed on the absorber film 12. Radiation 15 enters the device through the transparent layer 14. A metallic grid pattern or finger pattern (not shown) comprising busbars and fingers may also be deposited over the transparent layer 14 to reduce the effective series resistance of the device. The preferred electrical type of the absorber film 12 is p-type, and the preferred electrical type of the transparent layer 14 is n-type. However, an n-type absorber and a p-type window layer can also be utilized. The preferred device structure of FIG. 1 is called a “substrate-type” structure. A “superstrate-type” structure can also be constructed by depositing a transparent conductive layer on a transparent superstrate such as glass or transparent polymeric foil, and then depositing the Cu(In,Ga,Al)(S,Se,Te)2 absorber film, and finally forming an ohmic contact to the device by a conductive layer. In this superstrate structure light enters the device from the transparent superstrate side.
If the substrate 11 of the CIGS(S) type cell shown in FIG. 1 is a metallic foil, a positive voltage develops on the substrate 11 with respect to the transparent layer 14 under illumination. In other words, an electrical wire (not shown) that may be attached to the substrate 11 would constitute the (+) terminal of the solar cell 10 and a lead (not shown) that may be connected to the transparent layer 14 (or to a busbar of the metallic grid pattern that may be deposited on the transparent layer 14) would constitute the (−) terminal of the solar cell.
After fabrication, individual solar cells are typically assembled into solar cell strings and circuits by interconnecting them (usually in series) electrically, i.e. by connecting the (+) terminal of one cell to the (−) terminal of a neighboring cell. This way the total voltage of the solar cell circuit is increased. The solar cell circuit is then laminated into a protective package to form a photovoltaic module.
For a device structure of FIG. 1, if the substrate 11 is a conductive metallic foil, series interconnection of cells may be carried out by connecting the substrate 11 at the back or un-illuminated side of one particular cell to the busbar of the grid pattern (not shown) at the front or illuminated side of the adjacent cell. A common industry practice is to use conductive wires, preferably in the form of strips of flat conductors or ribbons to interconnect a plurality of solar cells to form first a cell string, then a circuit and then a module. Such ribbons are typically made of copper, coated with tin and/or silver. For standard crystalline Si-based technology, ribbons are attached to the front and back sides of the cells in the module structure by means of a suitable soldering material since both the top grid pattern of the cell and the bottom contact of the cell comprise easily solderable metallic materials such as silver. High temperature solders with processing temperatures in excess of 200° C., typically in excess of 300° C., may be used in the interconnection of Si cells to form “strings” which may then be interconnected by a process called “bussing” to form the circuit. The circuit is laminated in a protective package to form the module.
Unlike Si solar cells, the thin film Group IBIIIAVIA compound solar cell of FIG. 1 may be fabricated on a metallic foil substrate such as a flexible stainless steel web or aluminum alloy foil. These materials may not be easily soldered, especially since the process temperature for this type of solar cell is limited to less than about 250° C., preferably less than 200 ° C. Therefore, conductive adhesives are usually employed to attach the Cu ribbons to the busbars of the grid pattern and the back contact or the back surface of the metallic substrate of such solar cells during their interconnection. Although such techniques are in use in products, the contact resistance of the electrical contacts attached by conductive adhesives to the back surface of the metal foil substrate still needs to be reduced. Adhesion of the contact to the back surface of the metallic foil substrates also needs improvement.
In a typical solar cell string or circuit fabrication process, the solar cells are first completely processed except for the Cu ribbons. In other words, the cell comprises a conductive bottom or back contact and a top contact comprising a grid pattern or finger pattern with busbars and fingers on the front side. The cells are then measured under standard illumination and separated or binned according to their efficiency or short circuit current values. This process is often called “cell sorting”. Cell sorting works well for standard Si solar cells because both the bottom contact and the top grid pattern of standard Si solar cells comprise highly conductive materials such as screen printed silver. Therefore, when cells are placed on a metallic platform, preferably with vacuum suction so that a good physical contact is established between the metallic platform and the back side of the cell, a low resistance ohmic contact is obtained between the metallic platform and the back side of the cell. The busbars of the top grid pattern are then contacted by temporary, spring loaded contact points, and the front surface of the cell is illuminated. The illuminated current-voltage characteristics are measured between the temporary contact pins and the metallic platform touching the back side of the device. Since the electrical contact between the back surface of the cell and the metallic platform is good, the measured I-V characteristics do not get influenced much by this electrical contact. After cell sorting, devices in each bin, representing different I-V characteristics, are stringed together. This way matching cells are interconnected to maximize the efficiency of the cell strings. Cell strings are interconnected to form circuits and circuits are encapsulated in a protective package to form modules. During cell stringing, the back contact on the back surface of a first cell is electrically connected to a front contact or busbar of a second cell by soldering (or by conductive adhesive) a Cu ribbon to the back contact of the first cell and to the busbar of the second cell. There are a variety of automated manufacturing tools available to string the already binned or sorted cells to form cell strings. As can be appreciated the ability to measure the I-V characteristics of a solar cell, i.e. cell sorting or binning or classification, before attaching a Cu-ribbon to its back surface is important for this process flow. Without this capability, high throughput stringing tools cannot be used to form well matching strings and modules with optimum efficiency. It should be noted that if unmatched cells rather than sorted or classified cells are interconnected to form a string, the efficiency of the string would be dominated by the lowest performing device in the string.
CIGS thin film solar cells fabricated on metal foil substrates present challenges for cell sorting. When a metal foil based CIGS solar cell is fabricated using a metal foil with a front surface and a back surface, the absorber layer is first formed over the front surface of the metallic foil substrate, a window layer such as a CdS/ZnO stack or a CdS/ZnO/ITO stack is then deposited on the absorber layer, and a finger pattern with busbar(s) is formed on top of the window layer. After fabrication the cell needs to be measured and binned. However, metal foils such as stainless steel foils and aluminum alloy based web that are used for the fabrication of such solar cells, develop poorly conducting, high resistance surface films on their back surfaces, which are exposed to air and to various process environments employed during the fabrication of the cell. The metal foils also experience high temperatures in the range of 100-600 C during such processes. As a result, when the completed CIGS cell is placed on a metallic platform to measure its I-V characteristics (before attaching a Cu ribbon to its back surface) the electrical contact between the metallic platform and the back surface of the device (which is the back surface of the foil substrate) is poor. Consequently, the measured I-V characteristics, especially the fill factor of the device are negatively impacted by the resistance of this electrical contact. Since the contact resistance between the back surface of the cell and the metallic platform depends on the resistance and thickness of the poorly conducting surface films on the back side of the metallic substrate, the contact resistance varies from cell to cell and is not constant. As a result, binning or sorting of metal foil based CIGS solar cells is not reliable. Therefore, strings made using such binned cells do not yield the highest conversion efficiencies they would have provided if the cells were reliably binned.
Therefore, there is a need to develop approaches that will make cell sorting possible for metal foil based thin film solar cells. There is also a need to reduce the contact resistance and enhance the adhesion of contact leads such as Cu ribbons attached to the back side of metallic foil substrates. Such improvements are expected to enhance device efficiency and manufacturability and long term reliability of these modules.